Internal Combustion Engines 4th Edition by V. Ganesan, ISBN-13: 978-1259006197

Internal Combustion Engines 4th Edition by V. Ganesan, ISBN-13: 978-1259006197

[PDF eBook eTextbook]

• Publisher: ‎ Tata Mcgraw Hill Education Private Limited; 4th edition (April 1, 2012)
•  765 pages
• Language: ‎ English
• ISBN-10: ‎ 9781259006197
• ISBN-13: ‎ 978-1259006197

In an internal combustion engine, the combustion of the fuel takes place within a combustion chamber in the presence of a suitable (air, most often). The resultant rise in temperature and pressure from the combustion causes the movement of a specific part of the engine, the piston for example. This book, Internal Combustion Engines, gives the fundamental concepts and the specifics of various engine designs. The information is provided in a comprehensive manner, with highly detailed sketches. The book is divided into twenty chapters, each covering different aspects of internal combustion engines. The first chapter is an introduction to the construction, workings, and principles behind an internal combustion engine. The consequent chapters delve into more detail. The book first reviews all the basic principles of physics that are encountered when dealing with the engines. Then it talks about the analysis of air standard cycles, fuel air cycles, and actual cycles. A few sections of the book are then devoted to the fuels that are used for combustion, and also, mention is made of alternate fuels. The reader is Introduced to the different injection systems (mechanical and electronic). Mention is also made of lubrication and cooling the engine. The final section of the book is dedicated to a discussion on two-stroke engines.

Table of Contents:

Foreword vii
Preface ix
Nomenclature xxxi
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Energy Conversion 1
1.1.1 Definition of ‘Engine’ 1
1.1.2 Definition of ‘Heat Engine’ 1
1.1.3 Classification and Some Basic Details of Heat Engines 1
1.1.4 External Combustion and Internal Combustion Engines 2
1.2 Basic Engine Components and Nomenclature 3
1.2.1 Engine Components 3
1.2.2 Nomenclature 5
1.3 The Working Principle of Engines 6
1.3.1 Four-Stroke Spark-Ignition Engine 6
1.3.2 Four-Stroke Compression-Ignition Engine 8
1.3.3 Four-stroke SI and CI Engines 10
1.3.4 Two-Stroke Engine 10
1.3.5 Comparison of Four-Stroke and Two-Stroke Engines 12
1.4 Actual Engines 13
1.5 Classification of IC Engines 13
1.5.1 Cycle of Operation 16
1.5.2 Type of Fuel Used 16
1.5.3 Method of Charging 17
1.5.4 Type of Ignition 17
1.5.5 Type of Cooling 17
1.5.6 Cylinder Arrangements 17
1.6 Application of IC Engines 19
1.6.1 Two-Stroke Gasoline Engines 19
1.6.2 Two-Stroke Diesel Engines 20
1.6.3 Four-Stroke Gasoline Engines 20
1.6.4 Four-Stroke Diesel Engines 21
xii Contents
1.7 The First Law Analysis of Engine Cycle 21
1.8 Engine Performance Parameters 22
1.8.1 Indicated Thermal Efficiency (ηith) 22
1.8.2 Brake Thermal Efficiency (ηbth) 23
1.8.3 Mechanical Efficiency (ηm) 23
1.8.4 Volumetric Efficiency (ηv ) 23
1.8.5 Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio (ηrel ) 24
1.8.6 Mean Effective Pressure (pm) 24
1.8.7 Mean Piston Speed (sp) 25
1.8.8 Specific Power Output (Ps) 25
1.8.9 Specific Fuel Consumption (sf c) 26
1.8.10 Inlet-Valve Mach Index (Z) 26
1.8.11 Fuel-Air (F/A) or Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F ) 26
1.8.12 Calorific Value (CV ) 27
1.9 Design and Performance Data 28
Worked out Examples 30
Review Questions 37
Exercise 38
Multiple Choice Questions 42
2 Air-Standard Cycles and Their Analysis 47
2.1 Introduction 47
2.2 The Carnot Cycle 48
2.3 The Stirling Cycle 50
2.4 The Ericsson Cycle 51
2.5 The Otto Cycle 52
2.5.1 Thermal Efficiency 53
2.5.2 Work Output 54
2.5.3 Mean Effective Pressure 55
2.6 The Diesel Cycle 55
2.6.1 Thermal Efficiency 56
2.6.2 Work Output 58
2.6.3 Mean Effective Pressure 58
2.7 The Dual Cycle 58
2.7.1 Thermal Efficiency 58
2.7.2 Work Output 60
2.7.3 Mean Effective Pressure 60
2.8 Comparison of the Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles 61
2.8.1 Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition 61
2.8.2 Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection 62
2.8.3 Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature & Heat Rejection 62
2.8.4 Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input 63
2.8.5 Same Maximum Pressure and Work Output 64
Contents xiii
2.9 The Lenoir Cycle 64
2.10 The Atkinson Cycle 65
2.11 The Brayton Cycle 66
Worked out Examples 68
Review Questions 97
Exercise 98
Multiple Choice Questions 103
3 Fuel–Air Cycles and their Analysis 107
3.1 Introduction 107
3.2 Fuel–Air Cycles and their Significance 107
3.3 Composition of Cylinder Gases 109
3.4 Variable Specific Heats 109
3.5 Dissociation 111
3.6 Effect of Number of Moles 113
3.7 Comparison of Air–Standard and Fuel–Air Cycles 114
3.8 Effect of Operating Variables 115
3.8.1 Compression Ratio 115
3.8.2 Fuel–Air Ratio 117
Worked out Examples 121
Review Questions 128
Exercise 128
Multiple Choice Questions 129
4 Actual Cycles and their Analysis 131
4.1 Introduction 131
4.2 Comparison of Air-Standard and Actual Cycles 131
4.3 Time Loss Factor 132
4.4 Heat Loss Factor 137
4.5 Exhaust Blowdown 137
4.5.1 Loss Due to Gas Exchange Processes 138
4.5.2 Volumetric Efficiency 139
4.6 Loss due to Rubbing Friction 142
4.7 Actual and Fuel-Air Cycles of CI Engines 142
Review Questions 143
Multiple Choice Questions 144
5 Conventional Fuels 147
5.1 Introduction 147
5.2 Fuels 147
5.2.1 Solid Fuels 147
5.2.2 Gaseous Fuels 147
5.2.3 Liquid Fuels 148
xiv Contents
5.3 Chemical Structure of Petroleum 148
5.3.1 Paraffin Series 148
5.3.2 Olefin Series 149
5.3.3 Naphthene Series 150
5.3.4 Aromatic Series 150
5.4 Petroleum Refining Process 151
5.5 Important Qualities of Engine Fuels 153
5.5.1 SI Engine Fuels 154
5.5.2 CI Engine Fuels 156
5.6 Rating of Fuels 157
5.6.1 Rating of SI Engine Fuels 157
5.6.2 Rating of CI Engine Fuels 158
Review Questions 159
Multiple Choice Questions 160
6 Alternate Fuels 163
6.1 Introduction 163
6.2 Possible Alternatives 164
6.3 Solid Fuels 164
6.4 Liquid Fuels 166
6.4.1 Alcohol 166
6.4.2 Methanol 167
6.4.3 Ethanol 168
6.4.4 Alcohol for SI Engines 168
6.4.5 Reformulated Gasoline for SI Engine 169
6.4.6 Water-Gasoline Mixture for SI Engines 169
6.4.7 Alcohol for CI Engines 170
6.5 Surface-Ignition Alcohol CI Engine 171
6.6 Spark-Assisted Diesel 172
6.7 Vegetable Oil 172
6.8 Biodiesel 173
6.8.1 Production 174
6.8.2 Properties 175
6.8.3 Environmental Effects 175
6.8.4 Current Research 175
6.9 Gaseous Fuels 176
6.9.1 Hydrogen 176
6.10 Hydrogen Engines 177
6.10.1 Natural Gas 178
6.10.2 Advantages of Natural Gas 179
6.10.3 Disadvantages of Natural Gas 179
6.10.4 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) 180
6.10.5 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) 180
Contents xv
6.10.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of LPG 181
6.10.7 Future Scenario for LPG Vehicles 183
6.10.8 LPG (Propane) Fuel Feed System 183
6.11 Dual Fuel Operation 183
6.12 Other Possible Fuels 184
6.12.1 Biogas 184
6.12.2 Producer Gas 185
6.12.3 Blast Furnace Gas 185
6.12.4 Coke Oven Gas 185
6.12.5 Benzol 185
6.12.6 Acetone 186
6.12.7 Diethyl Ether 186
Review Questions 186
Multiple Choice Questions 187
7 Carburetion 189
7.1 Introduction 189
7.2 Definition of Carburetion 189
7.3 Factors Affecting Carburetion 189
7.4 Air–Fuel Mixtures 190
7.5 Mixture Requirements at Different Loads and Speeds 190
7.6 Automotive Engine Air–Fuel Mixture Requirements 192
7.6.1 Idling Range 192
7.6.2 Cruising Range 193
7.6.3 Power Range 194
7.7 Principle of Carburetion 195
7.8 The Simple Carburetor 196
7.9 Calculation of the Air–Fuel Ratio 197
7.9.1 Air–Fuel Ratio Neglecting Compressibility of Air 200
7.9.2 Air–Fuel Ratio Provided by a Simple Carburetor 200
7.9.3 Size of the Carburetor 201
7.10 Essential Parts of a Carburetor 201
7.10.1 The Fuel Strainer 201
7.10.2 The Float Chamber 201
7.10.3 The Main Metering and Idling System 202
7.10.4 The Choke and the Throttle 204
7.11 Compensating Devices 206
7.11.1 Air-bleed jet 206
7.11.2 Compensating Jet 207
7.11.3 Emulsion Tube 207
7.11.4 Back Suction Control Mechanism 208
7.11.5 Auxiliary Valve 210
7.11.6 Auxiliary Port 210
xvi Contents
7.12 Additional Systems in Modern Carburetors 210
7.12.1 Anti-dieseling System 211
7.12.2 Richer Coasting System 212
7.12.3 Acceleration Pump System 212
7.12.4 Economizer or Power Enrichment System 212
7.13 Types of Carburetors 213
7.13.1 Constant Choke Carburetor 214
7.13.2 Constant Vacuum Carburetor 214
7.13.3 Multiple Venturi Carburetor 214
7.13.4 Advantages of a Multiple Venturi System 216
7.13.5 Multijet Carburetors 216
7.13.6 Multi-barrel Venturi Carburetor 217
7.14 Automobile Carburetors 218
7.14.1 Solex Carburetors 218
7.14.2 Carter Carburetor 220
7.14.3 S.U. Carburetor 222
7.15 Altitude Compensation 223
7.15.1 Altitude Compensation Devices 224
Worked out Examples 225
Review Questions 234
Exercise 235
Multiple Choice Questions 238
8 Mechanical Injection Systems 241
8.1 Introduction 241
8.2 Functional Requirements of an Injection System 241
8.3 Classification of Injection Systems 242
8.3.1 Air Injection System 242
8.3.2 Solid Injection System 242
8.3.3 Individual Pump and Nozzle System 243
8.3.4 Unit Injector System 244
8.3.5 Common Rail System 244
8.3.6 Distributor System 245
8.4 Fuel Feed Pump 246
8.5 Injection Pump 246
8.5.1 Jerk Type Pump 246
8.5.2 Distributor Type Pump 248
8.6 Injection Pump Governor 248
8.7 Mechanical Governor 250
8.8 Pneumatic Governor 251
8.9 Fuel Injector 251
Contents xvii
8.10 Nozzle 252
8.10.1 Types of Nozzle 253
8.10.2 Spray Formation 255
8.10.3 Quantity of Fuel and the Size of Nozzle Orifice 257
8.11 Injection in SI Engine 258
Worked out Examples 259
Review Questions 266
Exercise 267
Multiple Choice Questions 268
9 Electronic Injection Systems 271
9.1 Introduction 271
9.2 Why Gasoline Injection? 271
9.2.1 Types of Injection Systems 272
9.2.2 Components of Injection System 273
9.3 Electronic Fuel Injection System 275
9.3.1 Merits of EFI System 276
9.3.2 Demerits of EFI System 276
9.4 Multi-Point Fuel Injection (MPFI) System 277
9.4.1 Port Injection 277
9.4.2 Throttle Body Injection System 278
9.4.3 D-MPFI System 278
9.4.4 L-MPFI System 279
9.5 Functional Divisions of MPFI System 279
9.5.1 MPFI-Electronic Control System 279
9.5.2 MPFI-Fuel System 279
9.5.3 MPFI-Air Induction System 279
9.6 Electronic Control System 281
9.6.1 Electronic Control Unit (ECU) 281
9.6.2 Cold Start Injector 282
9.6.3 Air Valve 282
9.7 Injection Timing 283
9.8 Group Gasoline Injection System 284
9.9 Electronic Diesel Injection System 286
9.10 Electronic Diesel Injection Control 287
9.10.1 Electronically Controlled Unit Injectors 287
9.10.2 Electronically Controlled Injection Pumps (Inline and
Distributor Type) 288
9.10.3 Common-Rail Fuel Injection System 290
Review Questions 292
Multiple Choice Questions 293
xviii Contents
10 Ignition 295
10.1 Introduction 295
10.2 Energy Requirements for Ignition 295
10.3 The Spark Energy and Duration 296
10.4 Ignition System 296
10.5 Requirements of an Ignition System 297
10.6 Battery Ignition System 297
10.6.1 Battery 298
10.6.2 Ignition Switch 299
10.6.3 Ballast Resistor 299
10.6.4 Ignition Coil 299
10.6.5 Contact Breaker 300
10.6.6 Capacitor 301
10.6.7 Distributor 301
10.6.8 Spark Plug 302
10.7 Operation of a Battery Ignition System 304
10.8 Limitations 305
10.9 Dwell Angle 306
10.10 Advantage of a 12 V Ignition System 307
10.11 Magneto Ignition System 307
10.12 Modern Ignition Systems 309
10.12.1 Transistorized Coil Ignition (TCI) System 310
10.12.2 Capacitive Discharge Ignition (CDI) System 312
10.13 Firing Order 312
10.14 Ignition Timing and Engine Parameters 314
10.14.1 Engine Speed 314
10.14.2 Mixture Strength 315
10.14.3 Part Load Operation 315
10.14.4 Type of Fuel 315
10.15 Spark Advance Mechanism 315
10.15.1 Centrifugal Advance Mechanism 316
10.15.2 Vacuum Advance Mechanism 317
10.16 Ignition Timing and Exhaust Emissions 318
Review Questions 319
Multiple Choice Questions 320
11 Combustion and Combustion Chambers 323
11.1 Introduction 323
11.2 Homogeneous Mixture 323
11.3 Heterogeneous Mixture 324
11.4 Combustion in Spark–Ignition Engines 324
11.5 Stages of Combustion in SI Engines 324
11.6 Flame Front Propagation 326
Contents xix
11.7 Factors Influencing the Flame Speed 327
11.8 Rate of Pressure Rise 329
11.9 Abnormal Combustion 330
11.10 The Phenomenon of Knock in SI Engines 330
11.10.1 Knock Limited Parameters 332
11.11 Effect of Engine Variables on Knock 333
11.11.1 Density Factors 333
11.11.2 Time Factors 334
11.11.3 Composition Factors 335
11.12 Combustion Chambers for SI Engines 336
11.12.1 Smooth Engine Operation 337
11.12.2 High Power Output and Thermal Efficiency 337
11.13 Combustion in Compression-Ignition Engines 339
11.14 Stages of Combustion in CI Engines 342
11.14.1 Ignition Delay Period 342
11.14.2 Period of Rapid Combustion 344
11.14.3 Period of Controlled Combustion 344
11.14.4 Period of After-Burning 344
11.15 Factors Affecting the Delay Period 344
11.15.1 Compression Ratio 345
11.15.2 Engine Speed 346
11.15.3 Output 347
11.15.4 Atomization and Duration of Injection 347
11.15.5 Injection Timing 347
11.15.6 Quality of Fuel 347
11.15.7 Intake Temperature 347
11.15.8 Intake Pressure 348
11.16 The Phenomenon of Knock in CI Engines 348
11.17 Comparison of Knock in SI and CI Engines 350
11.18 Combustion Chambers for CI Engines 352
11.18.1 Direct–Injection Chambers 353
11.18.2 Indirect–Injection Chambers 355
Review Questions 357
Multiple Choice Questions 358
12 Engine Friction and Lubrication 361
12.1 Introduction 361
12.1.1 Direct Frictional Losses 361
12.1.2 Pumping Loss 361
12.1.3 Power Loss to Drive Components to Charge
and Scavenge 362
12.1.4 Power Loss to Drive the Auxiliaries 362
12.2 Mechanical Efficiency 362
xx Contents
12.3 Mechanical Friction 363
12.3.1 Fluid-film or Hydrodynamic Friction 363
12.3.2 Partial-film Friction 363
12.3.3 Rolling Friction 363
12.3.4 Dry Friction 363
12.3.5 Journal Bearing Friction 364
12.3.6 Friction due to Piston Motion 364
12.4 Blowby Losses 364
12.5 Pumping Loss 365
12.5.1 Exhaust Blowdown Loss 365
12.5.2 Exhaust Stroke Loss 365
12.5.3 Intake Stroke Loss 365
12.6 Factors Affecting Mechanical Friction 366
12.6.1 Engine Design 366
12.6.2 Engine Speed 367
12.6.3 Engine Load 367
12.6.4 Cooling Water Temperature 367
12.6.5 Oil Viscosity 367
12.7 Lubrication 367
12.7.1 Function of Lubrication 368
12.7.2 Mechanism of Lubrication 368
12.7.3 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 371
12.7.4 Journal Bearing Lubrication 372
12.7.5 Stable Lubrication 374
12.8 Lubrication of Engine Components 375
12.8.1 Piston 375
12.8.2 Crankshaft Bearings 376
12.8.3 Crankpin Bearings 376
12.8.4 Wristpin Bearing 376
12.9 Lubrication System 377
12.9.1 Mist Lubrication System 377
12.9.2 Wet Sump Lubrication System 379
12.9.3 Dry Sump Lubrication System 382
12.10 Crankcase Ventilation 383
12.11 Properties of Lubricants 384
12.11.1 Viscosity 385
12.11.2 Flash and Fire Points 385
12.11.3 Cloud and Pour Points 385
12.11.4 Oiliness or Film Strength 386
12.11.5 Corrosiveness 386
12.11.6 Detergency 386
12.11.7 Stability 386
12.11.8 Foaming 386
12.12 SAE Rating of Lubricants 386
12.12.1 Single-grade 386
12.12.2 Multi-grade 387
12.13 Additives for Lubricants 388
12.13.1 Anti-oxidants and Anticorrosive Agents 388
12.13.2 Detergent-Dispersant 389
12.13.3 Extreme Pressure Additives 389
12.13.4 Pour Point Depressors 389
12.13.5 Viscosity Index Improvers 389
12.13.6 Oiliness and Film Strength Agents 389
12.13.7 Antifoam Agents 390
Review Questions 390
Multiple Choice Questions 390
13 Heat Rejection and Cooling 393
13.1 Introduction 393
13.2 Variation of Gas Temperature 393
13.3 Piston Temperature Distribution 394
13.4 Cylinder Temperature Distribution 395
13.5 Heat Transfer 395
13.6 Theory of Engine Heat Transfer 397
13.7 Parameters Affecting Engine Heat Transfer 399
13.7.1 Fuel-Air Ratio 399
13.7.2 Compression Ratio 399
13.7.3 Spark Advance 399
13.7.4 Preignition and Knocking 399
13.7.5 Engine Output 399
13.7.6 Cylinder Wall Temperature 400
13.8 Power Required to Cool the Engine 400
13.9 Need for Cooling System 400
13.10 Characteristics of an Efficient Cooling System 401
13.11 Types of Cooling Systems 401
13.12 Liquid Cooled Systems 401
13.12.1 Direct or Non-return System 402
13.12.2 Thermosyphon System 403
13.12.3 Forced Circulation Cooling System 403
13.12.4 Evaporative Cooling System 407
13.12.5 Pressure Cooling System 408
13.13 Air–Cooled System 409
13.13.1 Cooling Fins 409
13.13.2 Baffles 411
xxii Contents
13.14 Comparison of Liquid and Air–Cooling Systems 411
13.14.1 Advantages of Liquid-Cooling System 411
13.14.2 Limitations 412
13.14.3 Advantages of Air-Cooling System 412
13.14.4 Limitations 412
Review Questions 413
Multiple Choice Questions 414
14 Engine Emissions and Their Control 417
14.1 Introduction 417
14.2 Air Pollution due to IC Engines 417
14.3 Emission Norms 418
14.3.1 Overview of the Emission Norms in India 419
14.4 Comparison between Bharat Stage and Euro norms 419
14.5 Engine Emissions 421
14.5.1 Exhaust Emissions 421
14.6 Hydrocarbons (HC) 422
14.7 Hydrocarbon Emission 423
14.7.1 Incomplete Combustion 423
14.7.2 Crevice Volumes and Flow in Crevices 424
14.7.3 Leakage Past the Exhaust Valve 425
14.7.4 Valve Overlap 425
14.7.5 Deposits on Walls 425
14.7.6 Oil on Combustion Chamber Walls 426
14.8 Hydrocarbon Emission from Two-Stroke Engines 426
14.9 Hydrocarbon Emission from CI Engines 427
14.10 Carbon Monoxide (CO) Emission 428
14.11 Oxides Of Nitrogen (NOx) 429
14.11.1 Photochemical Smog 430
14.12 Particulates 430
14.13 Other Emissions 433
14.13.1 Aldehydes 433
14.13.2 Sulphur 433
14.13.3 Lead 434
14.13.4 Phosphorus 435
14.14 Emission Control Methods 435
14.14.1 Thermal Converters 435
14.15 Catalytic Converters 436
14.15.1 Sulphur 439
14.15.2 Cold Start-Ups 440
14.16 CI engines 441
14.16.1 Particulate Traps 441
14.16.2 Modern Diesel Engines 442
Contents xxiii
14.17 Reducing Emissions by Chemical Methods 442
14.17.1 Ammonia Injection Systems 443
14.18 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) 443
14.19 Non-Exhaust Emissions 445
14.19.1 Evaporative Emissions 446
14.19.2 Evaporation Loss Control Device (ELCD) 447
14.20 Modern Evaporative Emission Control System 448
14.20.1 Charcoal Canister 449
14.21 Crankcase Blowby 450
14.21.1 Blowby Control 450
14.21.2 Intake Manifold Return PCV System (Open Type) 450
Review Questions 452
Multiple Choice Questions 453
15 Measurements and Testing 457
15.1 Introduction 457
15.2 Friction Power 457
15.2.1 Willan’s Line Method 458
15.2.2 Morse Test 459
15.2.3 Motoring Test 461
15.2.4 From the Measurement of Indicated and Brake Power 461
15.2.5 Retardation Test 461
15.2.6 Comparison of Various Methods 463
15.3 Indicated Power 463
15.3.1 Method using the Indicator Diagram 464
15.3.2 Engine Indicators 465
15.3.3 Electronic Indicators 465
15.4 Brake Power 467
15.4.1 Prony Brake 469
15.4.2 Rope Brake 470
15.4.3 Hydraulic Dynamometer 471
15.4.4 Eddy Current Dynamometer 471
15.4.5 Swinging Field DC Dynamometer 473
15.4.6 Fan Dynamometer 473
15.4.7 Transmission Dynamometer 474
15.4.8 Chassis Dynamometer 474
15.5 Fuel Consumption 474
15.5.1 Volumetric Type Flowmeter 475
15.5.2 Gravimetric Fuel Flow Measurement 478
15.5.3 Fuel Consumption Measurement in Vehicles 479
15.6 Air Consumption 479
15.6.1 Air Box Method 480
15.6.2 Viscous-Flow Air Meter 480
xxiv Contents
15.7 Speed 481
15.8 Exhaust and Coolant Temperature 481
15.9 Emission 482
15.9.1 Oxides of Nitrogen 482
15.9.2 Carbon Monoxide 483
15.9.3 Unburned Hydrocarbons 484
15.9.4 Aldehydes 485
15.10 Visible Emissions 487
15.10.1 Smoke 487
15.11 Noise 490
15.12 Combustion Phenomenon 491
15.12.1 Flame Temperature Measurement 491
15.12.2 Flame Propagation 494
15.12.3 Combustion Process 495
Review Questions 496
Multiple Choice Questions 497
16 Performance Parameters and Characteristics 499
16.1 Introduction 499
16.2 Engine Power 500
16.2.1 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (pim) 500
16.2.2 Indicated Power (ip) 501
16.2.3 Brake Power (bp) 502
16.2.4 Brake Mean Effective Pressure (pbm) 504
16.3 Engine Efficiencies 505
16.3.1 Air-Standard Efficiency 505
16.3.2 Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiencies 505
16.3.3 Mechanical Efficiency 505
16.3.4 Relative Efficiency 506
16.3.5 Volumetric Efficiency 506
16.3.6 Scavenging Efficiency 507
16.3.7 Charge Efficiency 507
16.3.8 Combustion Efficiency 507
16.4 Engine Performance Characteristics 507
16.5 Variables Affecting Performance Characteristics 511
16.5.1 Combustion Rate and Spark Timing 511
16.5.2 Air-Fuel Ratio 512
16.5.3 Compression Ratio 512
16.5.4 Engine Speed 512
16.5.5 Mass of Inducted Charge 512
16.5.6 Heat Losses 512
16.6 Methods of Improving Engine Performance 512
16.7 Heat Balance 513
Contents xxv
16.8 Performance Maps 516
16.8.1 SI Engines 516
16.8.2 CI Engines 516
16.9 Analytical Method of Performance Estimation 518
Worked out Examples 521
Review Questions 563
Exercise 564
Multiple Choice Questions 571
17 Engine Electronics 575
17.1 Introduction 575
17.2 Typical Engine Management Systems 576
17.3 Position Displacement and Speed Sensing 577
17.3.1 Inductive Transducers 578
17.3.2 Hall Effect Pickup 578
17.3.3 Potentiometers 579
17.3.4 Linear Variable Differential transformer (LVDT) 580
17.3.5 Electro Optical Sensors 581
17.4 Measurement of Pressure 582
17.4.1 Strain Gauge Sensors 582
17.4.2 Capacitance Transducers 584
17.4.3 Peizoelectric Sensors 584
17.5 Temperature Measurement 585
17.5.1 Thermistors 585
17.5.2 Thermocouples 587
17.5.3 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) 587
17.6 Intake air flow measurement 587
17.6.1 Hot Wire Sensor 589
17.6.2 Flap Type Sensor 590
17.6.3 Vortex Sensor 591
17.7 Exhaust Oxygen Sensor 592
17.7.1 Knock Sensor 592
Review Questions 594
Multiple Choice Questions 594
18 Supercharging 597
18.1 Introduction 597
18.2 Supercharging 597
18.3 Types Of Superchargers 598
18.3.1 Centrifugal Type Supercharger 599
18.3.2 Root’s Supercharger 599
18.3.3 Vane Type Supercharger 599
18.3.4 Comparison between the Three Superchargers 600
xxvi Contents
18.4 Methods of Supercharging 600
18.4.1 Electric Motor Driven Supercharging 601
18.4.2 Ram Effect of Supercharging 601
18.4.3 Under Piston Supercharging 601
18.4.4 Kadenacy System of Supercharging 601
18.5 Effects of Supercharging 602
18.6 Limitations to Supercharging 603
18.7 Thermodynamic Analysis of Supercharged Engine Cycle 603
18.8 Power Input for Mechanical Driven Supercharger 604
18.9 Gear Driven and Exhaust Driven Supercharging Arrangements 606
18.10 Turbocharging 607
18.10.1 Charge Cooling 610
Worked out Examples 610
Review Questions 620
Exercise 621
Multiple Choice Questions 623
19 Two-Stroke Engines 625
19.1 Introduction 625
19.2 Types of Two-Stroke Engines 625
19.2.1 Crankcase Scavenged Engine 625
19.2.2 Separately Scavenged Engine 626
19.3 Terminologies and Definitions 628
19.3.1 Delivery Ratio (Rdel ) 629
19.3.2 Trapping Efficiency 629
19.3.3 Relative Cylinder Charge 629
19.3.4 Scavenging Efficiency 630
19.3.5 Charging Efficiency 631
19.3.6 Pressure Loss Coefficient (Pl ) 631
19.3.7 Index for Compressing the Scavenge Air (n) 632
19.3.8 Excess Air Factor (λ) 632
19.4 Two-stroke Air Capacity 632
19.5 Theoretical Scavenging Processes 632
19.5.1 Perfect Scavenging 633
19.5.2 Perfect Mixing 633
19.5.3 Short Circuiting 633
19.6 Actual Scavenging Process 633
19.7 Classification Based on Scavenging Process 634
19.8 Comparison of Scavenging Methods 636
19.9 Scavenging Pumps 636
19.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Two-stroke Engines 637
19.10.1 Advantages of Two-stroke Engines 637
19.10.2 Disadvantages of Two-Stroke Engines 638
Contents xxvii
19.11 Comparison of Two-stroke SI and CI Engines 639
Worked out Examples 639
Review Questions 645
Exercise 645
Multiple Choice Questions 647
20 Nonconventional Engines 649
20.1 Introduction 649
20.2 Common Rail Direct Injection Engine 649
20.2.1 The Working Principle 650
20.2.2 The Injector 650
20.2.3 Sensors 652
20.2.4 Electronic Control Unit (ECU) 652
20.2.5 Microcomputer 653
20.2.6 Status of CRDI Engines 653
20.2.7 Principle of CRDI in Gasoline Engines 654
20.2.8 Advantages of CRDI Systems 654
20.3 Dual Fuel and Multi-Fuel Engine 654
20.3.1 The Working Principle 655
20.3.2 Combustion in Dual-Fuel Engines 655
20.3.3 Nature of Knock in a Dual-Fuel Engine 656
20.3.4 Weak and Rich Combustion Limits 657
20.3.5 Factors Affecting Combustion in a Dual-Fuel Engine 657
20.3.6 Advantages of Dual Fuel Engines 658
20.4 Multifuel Engines 658
20.4.1 Characteristics of a Multi-Fuel Engine 659
20.5 Free Piston Engine 660
20.5.1 Free-Piston Engine Basics 661
20.5.2 Categories of Free Piston Engine 661
20.5.3 Single Piston 661
20.5.4 Dual Piston 661
20.5.5 Opposed Piston 662
20.5.6 Free Piston Gas Generators 663
20.5.7 Loading Requirements 664
20.5.8 Design Features 664
20.5.9 The Combustion Process 664
20.5.10 Combustion Optimization 665
20.5.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Free Piston Engine 665
20.5.12 Applications of Free Piston Engine 666
20.6 Gasoline Direct Injection Engine 667
20.6.1 Modes of Operation 668
xxviii Contents
20.7 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition Engine 670
20.7.1 Control 671
20.7.2 Variable Compression Ratio 671
20.7.3 Variable Induction Temperature 671
20.7.4 Variable Exhaust Gas Percentage 672
20.7.5 Variable Valve Actuation 672
20.7.6 Variable Fuel Ignition Quality 672
20.7.7 Power 673
20.7.8 Emissions 673
20.7.9 Difference in Engine Knock 673
20.7.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of HCCI Engine 674
20.8 Lean Burn Engine 674
20.8.1 Basics of Lean Burn Technology 676
20.8.2 Lean Burn Combustion 676
20.8.3 Combustion Monitoring 677
20.8.4 Lean Burn Emissions 677
20.8.5 Fuel Flexibility 677
20.8.6 Toyota Lean Burn Engine 678
20.8.7 Honda Lean Burn Systems 678
20.8.8 Mitsubishi Ultra Lean Burn Combustion Engines 679
20.9 Stirling Engine 680
20.9.1 Principle of Operation 681
20.9.2 Types of Stirling Engines 683
20.9.3 Alpha Stirling Engine 683
20.9.4 Working Principle of Alpha Stirling Engine 684
20.9.5 Beta Stirling Engine 685
20.9.6 Working Principle of Beta Stirling Engine 685
20.9.7 The Stirling Cycle 686
20.9.8 Displacer Type Stirling Engine 687
20.9.9 Pressurization 687
20.9.10 Lubricants and Friction 688
20.9.11 Comparison with Internal Combustion Engines 688
20.9.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Stirling Engine 688
20.9.13 Applications 691
20.9.14 Future of Stirling Engines 691
20.10 Stratified Charge Engine 692
20.10.1 Advantages of Burning Leaner Overall
Fuel-Air Mixtures 692
20.10.2 Methods of Charge Stratification 695
20.10.3 Stratification by Fuel Injection and Positive Ignition 695
20.10.4 Volkswagen PCI stratified charge engine 696
20.10.5 Broderson Method of Stratification 697
20.10.6 Charge Stratification by Swirl 698
Contents xxix
20.10.7 Ford Combustion Process (FCP) 698
20.10.8 Ford PROCO 700
20.10.9 Texaco Combustion Process (TCP) 700
20.10.10 Witzky Swirl Stratification Process 702
20.10.11 Honda CVCC Engine 702
20.10.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Stratified
Charge Engines 703
20.11 Variable Compression Ratio Engine 704
20.11.1 Cortina Variable Compression Engine 705
20.11.2 Cycle Analysis 706
20.11.3 The CFR Engine 707
20.11.4 Performance of Variable Compression Ratio Engines 707
20.11.5 Variable Compression Ratio Applications 709
20.12 Wankel Engine 709
20.12.1 Basic Design 710
20.12.2 Comparison of Reciprocating and Wankel Rotary Engine712
20.12.3 Materials 712
20.12.4 Sealing 712
20.12.5 Fuel consumption and emissions 712
20.12.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wankel Engines 713
Review Questions 714
Multiple Choice Questions 716
Index 719

V. GANESAN currently working as Professor Emeritus in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, is the recipient of Anna University National Award for Outstanding Academic for the Year 1997. He was the Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, at Indian Institute of Technology Madras between October 2000 and June 2002. He was also the Dean (Academic Research) at Indian Institute of Technology Madras between January 1998 and October 2000. He has so far published more than 350 research papers in national and international journals and conferences and has guided 20 M.S. and 40 Ph.D.s.

Among other awards received by him are the Babcock Power Award for the best fundamental scientific paper of Journal of Energy (1987), the Institution of Engineers Merit Prize and Citation (1993), SVRCET Surat Prize (1995), Sri Rajendra Nath Mookerjee Memorial Medal (1996), Automobile Engineer of the Year by the Institution of Automobile Engineers (India) (2001), Institution of Engineers (India), Tamil Nadu Scientist Award (TANSA) – 2003 by Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology, ISTE Periyar Award for Best Engineering College Teacher (2004), N K Iyengar Memorial Prize (2004) by Institution of Engineers (India), SVRCET Surat Prize (2004), Khosla National Award (2004), Bharat Jyoti Award (2006), UWA Outstanding Intellectuals of the 21st Century Award by United Writers Association, Chennai (2006), 2006 SAE Cliff Garrett Turbomachinery Engineering Award by SAE International, USA, Sir Rajendra Nath Mookerjee Memorial Prize (2006) by Institution of Engineers, Environmental Engineering Design Award 2006 by The Institution of Engineers (India), 2006 SAE Cliff Garrett Turbomachinery Engineering Award (2007), Excellence in Engineering Education (Triple “E”) Award by SAE International, USA (2007), Rashtriya Gaurav Award in the field of Science and Technology by India International Friendship Society (2012), and Best Citizens of India Award by International Publishing House New Delhi (2012). He is the Fellow of Indian National Academy of Engineering, National Environmental Science Academy, Fellow of SAE International, USA, and Institution of Engineers (India). He has also been felicitated by International Combustion Institute Indian Section for lifetime contribution in the field of I C engines and combustion.

Dr. Ganesan has authored several other books on Gas Turbines, Computer Simulation of Four- Stroke Spark-Ignition Engines and Computer Simulation of Four-Stroke Compression-Ignition Engines and has also edited several proceedings. He was formerly the Chairman of Combustion Institute (Indian Section) and is currently the Chairman of Engineering Education Board of SAE (India), besides being a member of many other professional societies.

Dr. Ganesan is actively engaged in a number of sponsored research projects and is a consultant for various industries and R&D organizations.

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