Social Research Methods 4th Edition by Alan Bryman, ISBN-13: 978-0199588053

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Social Research Methods 4th Edition by Alan Bryman, ISBN-13: 978-0199588053

[PDF eBook eTextbook]

• Publisher: ‎ Oxford University Press; 4th edition (March 21, 2012)
• Language: ‎ English
• 766 pages
• ISBN-10: ‎ 0199588058
• ISBN-13: ‎ 978-0199588053

In the fourth edition of this lively and engaging textbook, Alan Bryman presents students with an updated and all-encompassing guide to the principle techniques and methodology in the field of social research.

Adopting a coherent and student-friendly format, the book offers an encyclopaedic introduction to social research methodology, and considers a broad range of qualitative and quantitative methods to help students identify and evaluate the best approach for their research needs. Building on the success of the previous editions, this book is concerned with the ways that social researchers approach their craft. Bryman guides the reader through all aspects of the research process including formulating objectives, choosing research methods, securing research participants, as well as advice on how to effectively collect, analyse and interpret data and disseminate those findings to others. This fourth edition features a new “supervisor experience” feature, which offers helpful tips from the supervisor’s perspective on successful research, as well as a new chapter which tackles the sampling issues faced by qualitative researchers in a more consolidated fashion than in previous editions. Substantial updates have also been made to the existing material, particularly the internet research section, which has been fully revised to accommodate the extensive developments in this area.

Online supplements

For students:

* A student researcher’s toolkit, providing guidance and advice on every aspect of social research

* Student experience podcasts

* Self-marking multiple choice questions for revision

* Annotated web links to useful articles, reviews, models and research guides

* A guide to using Excel in data analysis

For instructors:

* A lecturer’s guide including lecture outlines, reading lists and teaching activities

* A suite of customisable PowerPoint slides

* Figures and tables from the text

* Case studies

Table of Contents:

About the author xxiv

Introducing the students xxv

Guide to the book xxxi

Guided tour of textbook features xxxvi

Guided tour of the ORC: lecturer resources xxxviii

Guided tour of the ORC: student resources xxxix

Abbreviations xl

Part One 1

Chapter 1 The nature and process of social research 3

Introduction 4

What is meant by ‘social research’? 4

Why do social research? 5

The context of social research methods 5

Elements of the process of social research 8

Literature review 8

Concepts and theories 8

Research questions 9

Sampling cases 11

Data collection 12

Data analysis 13

Writing up 14

The messiness of social research 15

Key points 16

Questions for review 16

Chapter 2 Social research strategies 18

Introduction 19

Theory and research 20

What type of theory? 21

Deductive and inductive theory 24

Epistemological considerations 27

A natural science epistemology: positivism 27

Interpretivism 28

Ontological considerations 32

Objectivism 32

Constructionism 33

Relationship to social research 34

Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative research 35

Influences on the conduct of social research 39

Values 39

Practical considerations 41

Key points 42

Questions for review 42

Chapter 3 Research designs 44

Introduction 45

Criteria in social research 46

Reliability 46

Replication 47

Validity 47

Relationship with research strategy 48

Research designs 50

Experimental design 50

Cross-sectional design 59

Longitudinal design(s) 63

Case study design 66

Comparative design 72

Bringing research strategy and research design together 76

Key points 77

Questions for review 77

Chapter 4 Planning a research project and formulating

research questions 79

Introduction 80

Getting to know what is expected of you by your

institution 80

Thinking about your research area 81

Using your supervisor 81

Managing time and resources 82

Formulating suitable research questions 85

Criteria for evaluating research questions 90

Writing your research proposal 92

Preparing for your research 92

Doing your research and analysing your results 93

Checklist 94

Key points 95

Questions for review 95

Chapter 5 Getting started: reviewing the literature 97

Reviewing the existing literature 98

Getting the most from your reading 98

Systematic review 102

Narrative review 110

Searching the existing literature 113

Electronic databases 113

Keywords and defi ning search parameters 118

Referencing your work 120

The role of the bibliography 123

Avoiding plagiarism 124

Checklist 127

Key points 127

Questions for review 128

Chapter 6 Ethics and politics in social research 129

Introduction 130

Ethical principles 135

Harm to participants 135

Lack of informed consent 138

Invasion of privacy 142

Deception 143

Ethics and the issue of quality 143

The diffi culties of ethical decision-making 148

New media and diffi cult decisions 149

Politics in social research 149

Checklist 153

Key points 154

Questions for review 154

Part Two 157

Chapter 7 The nature of quantitative research 159

Introduction 160

The main steps in quantitative research 160

Concepts and their measurement 163

What is a concept? 163

Why measure? 164

Indicators 164

Using multiple-indicator measures 166

Dimensions of concepts 167

Reliability and validity 168

Reliability 168

Validity 170

Refl ections on reliability and validity 173

The main preoccupations of quantitative researchers 175

Measurement 175

Causality 175

Generalization 176

Replication 177

The critique of quantitative research 178

Criticisms of quantitative research 178

Is it always like this? 179

Reverse operationism 180

Reliability and validity testing 180

Sampling 181

Key points 181

Questions for review 182

Chapter 8 Sampling 183

Introduction to survey research 184

Introduction to sampling 186

Sampling error 188

Types of probability sample 190

Simple random sample 190

Systematic sample 191

Stratifi ed random sampling 192

Multi-stage cluster sampling 193

The qualities of a probability sample 195

Sample size 197

Absolute and relative sample size 197

Time and cost 198

Non-response 199

Heterogeneity of the population 200

Kind of analysis 201

Types of non-probability sampling 201

Convenience sampling 201

Snowball sampling 202

Quota sampling 203

Limits to generalization 205

Error in survey research 205

Key points 206

Questions for review 206

Chapter 9 Structured interviewing 208

Introduction 209

The structured interview 209

Reducing error due to interviewer variability 210

Accuracy and ease of data processing 211

Other types of interview 212

Interview contexts 213

More than one interviewee 213

More than one interviewer 214

In person or by telephone? 214

Computer-assisted interviewing 216

Conducting interviews 217

Know the schedule 217

Introducing the research 217

Rapport 218

Asking questions 219

Recording answers 219

Clear instructions 219

Question order 220

Probing 223

Prompting 224

Leaving the interview 225

Training and supervision 225

Problems with structured interviewing 227

Characteristics of interviewers 227

Response sets 227

The problem of meaning 228

The feminist critique 228

Key points 229

Questions for review 230

Chapter 10 Self-completion questionnaires 231

Introduction 232

Self-completion questionnaire or postal questionnaire? 232

Evaluating the self-completion questionnaire in relation to the

structured interview 233

Advantages of the self-completion questionnaire over the

structured interview 233

Disadvantages of the self-completion questionnaire in

comparison with the structured interview 234

Steps to improve response rates to postal questionnaires 236

Designing the self-completion questionnaire 237

Do not cramp the presentation 237

Clear presentation 237

Vertical or horizontal closed answers? 237

Clear instructions about how to respond 239

Keep question and answers together 239

Diaries as a form of self-completion questionnaire 239

Advantages and disadvantages of the diary as a method of

data collection 243

Key points 243

Questions for review 243

Chapter 11 Asking questions 245

Introduction 246

Open or closed questions? 246

Open questions 246

Closed questions 249

Types of questions 253

Rules for designing questions 254

General rules of thumb 254

Specifi c rules when designing questions 255

Vignette questions 261

Piloting and pre-testing questions 263

Using existing questions 264

Checklist 265

Key points 266

Questions for review 267

Chapter 12 Structured observation 269

Introduction 270

Problems with survey research on social behaviour 270

So why not observe behaviour? 272

The observation schedule 275

Strategies for observing behaviour 276

Sampling 277

Sampling people 277

Sampling in terms of time 278

Further sampling considerations 278

Issues of reliability and validity 279

Reliability 279

Validity 280

Field stimulations as a form of structured observation 282

Criticisms of structured observation 283

On the other hand . . . 284

Checklist 285

Key points 285

Questions for review 286

Chapter 13 Content analysis 288

Introduction 289

What are the research questions? 291

Selecting a sample 293

Sampling media 293

Sampling dates 293

What is to be counted? 295

Signifi cant actors 295

Words 295

Subjects and themes 297

Dispositions 298

Coding 298

Coding schedule 298

Coding manual 299

Potential pitfalls in devising coding schemes 303

Advantages of content analysis 304

Disadvantages of content analysis 306

Checklist 307

Key points 308

Questions for review 308

Chapter 14 Secondary analysis and offi cial statistics 310

Introduction 311

Other researchers’ data 312

Advantages of secondary analysis 312

Limitations of secondary analysis 315

Accessing the Data Archive 316

Offi cial statistics 320

Reliability and validity 322

Condemning and resurrecting offi cial statistics 324

Offi cial statistics as a form of unobtrusive method 325

Key points 327

Questions for review 327

Chapter 15 Quantitative data analysis 329

Introduction 330

A small research project 331

Missing data 333

Types of variable 335

Univariate analysis 337

Frequency tables 337

Diagrams 337

Measures of central tendency 338

Measures of dispersion 339

Bivariate analysis 339

Relationships not causality 341

Contingency tables 341

Pearson’s r 341

Spearman’s rho 344

Phi and Cramér’s V 344

Comparing means and eta 344

Multivariate analysis 345

Could the relationship be spurious? 345

Could there be an intervening variable? 345

Could a third variable moderate the relationship? 346

Statistical signifi cance 347

The chi-square test 348

Correlation and statistical signifi cance 349

Comparing means and statistical signifi cance 350

Checklist 350

Key points 351

Questions for review 351

Chapter 16 Using IBM SPSS for Windows 353

Introduction 354

Getting started in SPSS 355

Beginning SPSS 355

Entering data in the Data Viewer 356

Defi ning variables: variable names, missing values, variable

labels, and value labels 357

Recoding variables 359

Computing a new variable 359

Data analysis with SPSS 361

Generating a frequency table 361

Generating a bar chart 363

Generating a pie chart 363

Generating a histogram 363

Generating the arithmetic mean, median, standard deviation,

the range, and boxplots 363

Generating a contingency table, chi-square, and Cramér’s V 366

Generating Pearson’s r and Spearman’s rho 368

Generating scatter diagrams 368

Comparing means and eta 372

Generating a contingency table with three variables 372

Further operations in SPSS 373

Saving your data 373

Retrieving your data 374

Printing output 374

Key points 374

Questions for review 374

Part Three 377

Chapter 17 The nature of qualitative research 379

Introduction 380

The main steps in qualitative research 384

Theory and research 387

Concepts in qualitative research 388

Reliability and validity in qualitative research 389

Adapting reliability and validity for qualitative research 389

Alternative criteria for evaluating qualitative research 390

Recent discussions about quality criteria for qualitative

research 393

Between quantitative and qualitative research criteria 394

Overview of the issue of criteria 397

The main preoccupations of qualitative researchers 399

Seeing through the eyes of the people being studied 399

Description and the emphasis on context 401

Emphasis on process 402

Flexibility and limited structure 403

Concepts and theory grounded in data 404

The critique of qualitative research 405

Qualitative research is too subjective 405

Diffi cult to replicate 405

Problems of generalization 406

Lack of transparency 406

Is it always like this? 407

Some contrasts between quantitative and qualitative research 407

Some similarities between quantitative and qualitative research 409

Feminism and qualitative research 410

Key points 412

Questions for review 413

Chapter 18 Sampling in qualitative research 415

Introduction 416

Levels of sampling 417

Purposive sampling 418

Theoretical sampling 418

Generic purposive sampling 422

Snowball sampling 424

Sample size 425

Not just people 427

Using more than one sampling approach 427

Key points 428

Questions for review 429

Chapter 19 Ethnography and participant observation 430

Introduction 431

Access 433

Overt versus covert ethnography 433

Access to closed settings 435

Access to open/public settings 436

Ongoing access 439

Key informants 439

Roles for ethnographers 440

Active or passive? 446

Field notes 447

Types of field notes 450

Bringing ethnographic research to an end 452

Can there be a feminist ethnography? 453

The rise of visual ethnography 455

Writing ethnography 462

The changing nature of ethnography 464

Key points 466

Questions for review 466

Chapter 20 Interviewing in qualitative research 468

Introduction 469

Differences between the structured interview and the

qualitative interview 470

Asking questions in the qualitative interview 471

Preparing an interview guide 472

Kinds of questions 476

Recording and transcription 482

Telephone interviewing 488

Life history and oral history interviewing 488

Feminist research and interviewing in qualitative research 491

Qualitative interviewing versus participant observation 493

Advantages of participant observation in comparison to

qualitative interviewing 493

Advantages of qualitative interviewing in comparison to

participant observation 494

Overview 496

Checklist 497

Key points 498

Questions for review 498

Chapter 21 Focus groups 500

Introduction 501

Uses of focus groups 503

Conducting focus groups 504

Recording and transcription 504

How many groups? 505

Size of groups 507

Level of moderator involvement 508

Selecting participants 509

Asking questions 511

Beginning and fi nishing 513

Group interaction in focus group sessions 513

Limitations of focus groups 516

Checklist 519

Key points 519

Questions for review 520

Chapter 22 Language in qualitative research 521

Introduction 522

Conversation analysis 522

Assumptions of conversation analysis 523

Transcription and attention to detail 525

Some basic tools of conversation analysis 525

Overview 527

Discourse analysis 528

Uncovering interpretative repertoires 531

Producing facts 533

Critical discourse analysis 536

Overview 538

Key points 540

Questions for review 540

Chapter 23 Documents as sources of data 542

Introduction 543

Personal documents 544

Diaries, letters, and autobiographies 544

Visual objects 546

Offi cial documents deriving from the state 549

Offi cial documents deriving from private sources 550

Mass-media outputs 552

Virtual documents 554

The reality of documents 554

Interpreting documents 556

Qualitative content analysis 557

Semiotics 559

Hermeneutics 560

Checklist 561

Key points 562

Questions for review 562

Chapter 24 Qualitative data analysis 564

Introduction 565

General strategies of qualitative data analysis 566

Analytic induction 566

Grounded theory 567

Basic operations in qualitative data analysis 575

Steps and considerations in coding 576

Turning data into fragments 577

Problems with coding 578

Thematic analysis 578

Narrative analysis 582

Secondary analysis of qualitative data 586

Key points 587

Questions for review 588

Chapter 25 Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis:

using NVivo 590

Introduction 591

Is CAQDAS like quantitative data analysis software? 591

No industry leader 592

Lack of universal agreement about the utility of CAQDAS 592

Learning NVivo 593

Coding 595

Searching text 603

Memos 607

Saving an NVivo project 607

Opening an existing NVivo project 607

Final thoughts 608

Key points 608

Questions for review 609

Part Four 611

Chapter 26 Breaking down the quantitative/qualitative divide 613

Introduction 614

The natural science model and qualitative research 615

Quantitative research and interpretivism 617

Quantitative research and constructionism 618

Research methods and epistemological and ontological

considerations 618

Problems with the quantitative/qualitative contrast 619

Behaviour versus meaning 620

Theory and concepts tested in research versus theory and

concepts emergent from data 621

Numbers versus words 621

Artifi cial versus natural 621

The mutual analysis of quantitative and qualitative research 622

A qualitative research approach to quantitative research 622

A quantitative research approach to qualitative research 623

Quantifi cation in qualitative research 624

Thematic analysis 624

Quasi-quantifi cation in qualitative research 624

Combating anecdotalism through limited quantifi cation 624

Key points 625

Questions for review 625

Chapter 27 Mixed methods research: combining quantitative and

qualitative research 627

Introduction 628

The argument against mixed methods research 629

The embedded methods argument 629

The paradigm argument 629

Two versions of the debate about quantitative and qualitative

research 631

Approaches to mixed methods research 631

A content analysis of articles based on mixed methods

research 633

Approaches to combining quantitative and qualitative

research in mixed methods research 635

Reflections on mixed methods research 649

Checklist 650

Key points 651

Questions for review 651

Chapter 28 E-research: Internet research methods 653

Introduction 654

The Internet as object of analysis 654

Using the Internet to collect data from individuals 658

Online ethnography 659

Qualitative research using online focus groups 663

Qualitative research using online personal interviews 668

Online social surveys 670

Email surveys 670

Web surveys 671

Mixing modes of survey administration 672

Sampling issues 673

Overview 679

Ethical considerations in Internet research 679

The state of e-research 681

Key points 681

Questions for review 681

Chapter 29 Writing up social research 683

Introduction 684

Writing up your research 685

Start early 685

Be persuasive 685

Get feedback 686

Avoid sexist, racist, and disablist language 686

Structure your writing 686

Writing up quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research 692

Writing up quantitative research 692

Writing up qualitative research 695

Writing up mixed methods research 699

Academic writing 704

Checklist 706

Key points 707

Questions for review 707

Glossary 709

References 718

Name index 744

Index 750

Alan Bryman was Professor of Organizational and Social Research at the University of Leicester from 2005 to 2017. Prior to this he was Professor of Social Research at Loughborough University for 31 years. His main research interests were in leadership, especially in higher education, research methods (particularly mixed methods research), and the ‘Disneyization’ and ‘McDonaldization’ of modern society. Alan also co-authored Business Research Methods (Oxford University Press, 2018), helped conceive of How to do your Social Research Project or Dissertation (Oxford University Press, 2019), and contributed to a range of leading journals: he was an extraordinarily well-cited and internationally renowned social scientist.

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