Police Community Relations and the Administration of Justice 9th Edition by Ronald Hunter, ISBN-13: 978-0134548043

For courses in Police Community Relations or Community Policing.

An up-to-date, interdisciplinary approach to understanding and practicing positive police-community relations

Police-Community Relations and the Administration of Justice, Ninth Edition, continues the theme of citizen participation, emphasizes why it is critical to the effectiveness of the criminal justice system, and addresses the dynamic nature of police-community relations. The book focuses on the importance of and strategies for positive police-community interactions and addresses the internal and external communities the police serve. The text’s interdisciplinary approach draws data and discussions from a wide range of disciplines and gives students a well-rounded perspective to help them better understand and practice positive police-community relations. The Ninth Edition includes updated data and references throughout; new ideas for addressing the ongoing changes in police-community relations; new insights on how the police organization fits with the community it serves; enhanced information on the dynamics of policing realities; a look at the different levels of communication and how to improve communications; the relationships between the media and the police; and more.

Table of Contents:

Preface

New to This Edition

Instructor Supplements

Alternate Versions

Chapter 1 The Administration of Justice and the Police

Key Concepts

The Idea of Justice

The Need for Justice

Human Rights

Civil Rights

Justice Defined

Types of Justice

Social Justice

Civil Justice

Restorative Justice

Criminal Justice

The Core Mission and Role of the Police in the Administration of Justice

The Rule of Law

Vengeance/Retribution

Deterrence/Prevention

Treatment

Incapacitation

Reparations

Social Stability

Maintenance of Order

Equitable Social Control

Symbolic Reassurance

The Challenges of Administering Justice in a Free Society

Crime Control versus Due Process

Rights of Society

Rights of Individuals

Balancing the Rights of Society with Those of Individuals.

The Components of the U.S. Justice System

The Federalist System

Lawmaking

Law Enforcement

Prosecution

Adjudication

Corrections

The Structure of the Police System in America

Federal Police Agencies

Department of Treasury Agencies

Department of Justice Agencies

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives.

Drug Enforcement Administration.

U.S. Marshals Service.

Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Department of Homeland Security Agencies

Customs and Border Protection.

Immigration and Customs Enforcement.

Transportation Security Administration.

The U.S. Coast Guard.

U.S. Secret Service.

Uniformed Division.

State Police Agencies

County Law Enforcement

Municipal Police

Where the Police “Fit” Within the U.S. Justice System

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Appendix 1 The U.N. Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Chapter 2 Police Role Concept in a Changing Society

Key Concepts

Great Expectations

Perception

Seeing and Perceiving

Perception Is Personal

Role Concept

The Police Officer’s Roles

Crime Control

Order Maintenance

Service

Other Roles

Police Role Conflict

Formation of Role Concepts

The Sources of Role Concepts

Lack of Information

How Police Respond

The Media and Role Concepts

Factors and Conditions of Change

Reassessing the Dimensions

A World of Infinite Choices

The Paradoxes of Police Practice

Community Relations: Residue from the Past

Toward a Realistic Role Concept

The Police Officer’s Working Personality and Reality

Service versus Crime Fighting

Toward a Congruent Role

Elements of Change

Criteria for Change

Policing in a Changing Society

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 3 Police–Community Relations: An Overview

Key Concepts

Understanding Community Variations

The Police–Community Environment

Defining Police–Community Relations

Acceptance of the Concept of Police–Community Relations

Acceptance as a Sign of Progress

A Historical Perspective

Nineteenth-Century Origins

Selling the Police to the People

The 1960s: From Public Relations to Community Relations

The San Francisco Community Relations Unit

Police–Community Relations since the 1960s

The Police and Social Work

The Success of Police–Community Relations

Internalizing Community Relations

What “Community Relations” Does Not Mean

What “Community Relations” Does Mean

Systems and Communities

Feedback/Input

The Many Communities in Community Relations

External Communities

The Justice Community

The Political Community

The Human Services Community

Citizens and the Police

Internal Communities

The Personal Support Community

The Police Community

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 4 Public Relations and Community Relations: A Contrast

Key Concepts

Public Relations and/or Community Relations?

The Relationship

Defining Community Relations

Defining Public Relations

Common Framework for Analyzing Community and Public Relations

The Purpose of the Activity

Public Relations

Public Information

Image Enhancement

Community Relations

Processes Involved in the Activity

Public Relations

Standardization

Agency Oriented, Community Oriented, or Both

Information Flow

Hierarchical Level of Involvement

Breadth of Agency Involvement

Community Relations

Standardization

Agency Oriented, Community Oriented, or Both

Information Flow

Hierarchical Level of Involvement

Breadth of Agency Involvement

Citizen Involvement

Emerging Models of Policing and Community Participation in Policing

Public Relations

Community Relations

Why Public Relations is not Enough

Failing to Provide True Problem-Solving Mechanisms.

Reaching the Wrong Targets.

Alienating Concerned Citizens.

Dealing Ineptly with Crucial Issues.

Limited Decision-Making Power.

How Public Relations Can Strengthen Community Relations

Informing the Public About Crucial Issues

Developing Community Support

Supplementing Agency Operations and Programs

Presenting an Accurate Picture of the Agency and Its Functions

Enhancing the Agency’s Image

Program Examples

Programs with a Major Community Relations Focus

Rumor Control

Community Advisory Councils/Committees

Storefront Centers

Neighborhood Team Policing

Foot Patrol Programs

Physical Decentralization of Command

Problem-Oriented Policing

Crime Prevention: Another Name for Community Relations?

Neighborhood Watch

Operation Identification

Police Auxiliary Volunteers

Community Crime Watch

Crime Stoppers

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 5 The Public and the Police: A Consortium of Communities

Key Concepts

External Communities

Ethnic/Racial Minorities

Women

Gays and Lesbians

Youth

The Elderly

The Poor

Mentally Ill

The Addicted Population

The Media

Religious Organizations

Civic Organizations

Public Service Organizations

Political Organizations

Labor Unions

Economic/Business Organizations

Community Interest Organizations

Clients

Governmental Agencies

For Better, for Worse

Internal Communities

Minorities

Gender

Sexual Preference

Police Unions

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 6 Relations within the Police Organization

Key Concepts

Life Inside a Police Organization

The Formal Organization

Communications and Accountability

Structure

Organizational Components

Operations

Administration

Auxiliary Services

The Informal Organization

Activities and Effects

Police Organizational Considerations

Staff versus Line Personnel

Sworn versus Civilian Personnel

Interunit Competition

Union Issues

Managing Change

Dealing with other Employees

Dealing with Superiors

Immediate Superiors

Distant Superiors

Dealing with Subordinates

Immediate Subordinates

Distant Subordinates

Dealing with Peers

Interrelationships

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 7 Coping with the Human Experience of Being a Cop

Key Concepts

The Paradoxes in Policing

What Policing Does to the Police

The Working Personality

Selection or Socialization

Social Hazards of Policing

Alienation from the Public

Police as a Minority Group

Isolation from the Family

Economic Hazards of Policing

Salary Limitations

Career Limitations

Liability Issues

Health Hazards

Violence

Accidents

Contagious Diseases

Emotional Distress Resulting from On-the-Job Stress

Mental Illness

Suicide

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Substance Abuse

Physical Wellness Issues

Coping with Being a Cop

Selection

Training

Family Programs

Wellness Programs

Nonprofit Police Assistance Groups

The Challenges of Being a Cop and Doing Community Relations

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 8 The Communication Process

Key Concepts

Communication in Action

Levels of Communication

Skin-Deep Communication (No Communication)

Intellectual Level or Cognitive Communication (Argumentation)

Heart Level or Affective Communication (Therapeutic Communication)

Gut Level or Brutally Honest Communication (Emphatic Communication)

The Process of Communication

The Elements of Communication

Sources of Distortion

A Continuing Process

Modes of Interpersonal Communication

Verbal and Paralanguage Cues

Articulation

Volume and Rate

Language

Tone of Voice

Telephone Cues

Kinesics and Proxemics Cues

Body Language

The Meaning of the Message

The Officer’s Message

Personal Space

A Territorial Imperative

Identifying Territory

Interpersonal Space

The Message of Proxemics

Symbolic Cues

Official Communication

Effective Listening

Listening as a Mental Exercise

Nonjudgmental Listening

Listening Efficiency

Some Effective Listening Facilitators

Empathy

Blocks to Effective Communication

Community Distrust of Police

Police Distrust of Community

Poor Training

Organizational Structure

Scapegoating

Simple Preferences

Active Biases

Prejudice

Discrimination

Full-Fledged Scapegoating

Why Scapegoating Occurs

Tabloid Thinking

Self-Enhancement

Peer Pressure and Conformity

Communication in a Digital Age

Strategies of Change

Achieving Mutual Respect

Improving Training

Rethinking Police Organization

Preventing Scapegoating

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 9 Police Discretion and Community Relations

Key Concepts

Discretion in the System

Defining Discretion

The Elements of Discretion

Exercising Discretion in the System

Selective and Discriminatory Enforcement

A Modern Tightrope

The Administrative Choice

Operational-Level Choices

The Police Officer as Legislator, Prosecutor, and Judge

The Invisibility of the Police Officer’s Choices

Decision Making at an Administrative Level

Finding the Optimum Law Enforcement Level

Community Input

Bargaining and Law Enforcement

The Rule of Silence

Exceptions to the Rule

Decision Making at an Operational Level

Community Input

Situational Factors

Environmental Factors

Educational and Experiential Factors

Police Work Rules

Justifications for Selective Enforcement

Justification by Administration

Justification by Officers

A Question of Injustice

Four Other Common Justifications

The Question of Professionalism

Legal Authority for Selective Enforcement

What the Law Says

What the Courts Say

Writs of Mandamus

Selective Enforcement and Appropriate Guidelines

Abuse of Power

Racially Biased Policing

Lack of Support

Impact on Public Image

Structuring Police Discretion

Recognizing Discretion in Law Enforcement

Enforcement Policy Boards

Composition of the Board

Policy Implementation Units

The Courts

Review

Internal Review

Legislative Review

The Community

Looking Toward Tomorrow

Some Recommendations

A Lesson from the Past

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 10 Community-Oriented Policing

Key Concepts

The Evolution of Police Service Models

The Watch and Ward

The Peelian Model

The Traditional Model

The Professional Model

The Development of Community-Oriented Police Models

Team Policing

Integrated Criminal Apprehension Program

Neighborhood Foot Patrol

Community-Oriented Policing

The Philosophical Dimension

The Strategic Dimension

The Tactical Dimension

The Organizational Dimension

Problem-Oriented Policing

Technological Advances and Community Policing

Crime Analysis Programs

Computer-Aided Dispatching

Crime Mapping

The Current Status of Community Policing

Community-Oriented Policing and Problem Solving (COPPS)

Computerized Statistics Program (COMPSTAT)

Community-Oriented Policing Applications

Forms of Patrol

Substations

Citizens Police Academies and Citizen Volunteers

Resident Officer Program

Community Action Groups

Problem-Specific Techniques

Recommendations for Implementing Community-Oriented Policing

Preparation

Gathering Information

Organizational Review

The Community

Initiation

Reorganization

Education

Training

Implementation

Preliminary Evaluation

Full Implementation

Evaluation and Monitoring

Analysis of Efforts

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 11 Police–Community Relations and the Media

Key Concepts

Community Relations Context

Commitment to Crime Coverage

The Subjectivity Factor

Restricting Coverage Argument

Heavy Coverage Argument

Exploitation of Crime News

Public Reaction to Media Coverage

Conflict Between Media and Police

A Hindrance and a Help

Champions of the Innocent

A Clear Need for Guidelines

The Background

Competing Rights

Recognizing the Need for Guidelines

The Bruno Hauptmann Trial

The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy

The Trial of Dr. Sam Sheppard

The Trial of O. J. Simpson

More Recent Cases

Complicating Issues

Concerns of Victims and Witnesses

The Need to Get the Full Story

Crisis Situations

Disturbances and Unrest

Hostage and Terrorist Activity

Setting Guidelines

Information Release

The Wisconsin Guidelines

What Can be Released

What Cannot be Released

Problem Areas

Police Operational Response

Advantages of Guidelines

Crisis Guidelines for the Media

A Common Interest

A Proposal for Hostage–Terrorist Situations

Police–Community Relations

Public Information Officer

Marketing Police–Community Relations

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 12 Special Populations and the Police

Key Concepts

Special Problems for the Police

Understanding the Young

The First Ten Years

Meeting Basic Needs

Children As Police Clients

The Teenage Years

A Time of Rapid Change

Development Tasks

Meeting Basic Needs

Understanding the Elderly

A Profile

Transitions into Late Adulthood

Facts about the Elderly

Physical Facts

Emotional and Functional Facts

Meeting Basic Needs

Understanding the Handicapped

The Physically Handicapped

Physiological Disorders

Physical Incapacitation

The Blind

The Deaf

The Mentally Handicapped

Learning Disorders

Mental Illness

Persons with Intellectual Disability

Understanding the Homeless

A Profile

Facts About the Homeless

Meeting Basic Needs

Youth, the Elderly, the Handicapped, and the Homeless: Shared Problems

Dependency Issues

Personal Identity Issues

Where Do I Fit?

Self-Image and Self-Esteem

Stereotyping Issues

Myths about Youth

Myth 1: All Teenagers Who Commit Delinquent Acts are Going to Be Adult Criminals

Myth 2: All Teenagers Have Severe Adjustment Problems During Adolescence

Myth 3: Teenagers Cannot Be Trusted

Myth 4: All Teenage Groups are Gangs

Myths about the Elderly

Myth 1: People Over 65 are More Often Victimized By Crime Than the Rest of the Population

Myth 2: Women Over the Age of 65 are Frequently Rape Victims

Myth 3: The Elderly are Totally Dependent on Others for Their Care And Offer No Contribution to Society

Myth 4: The Elderly Cannot Enjoy Sex Because of Physiological Difficulties

Myth 5: Intelligence Reaches A Peak in the Twenties and Declines at a Steady Rate

Myths about the Handicapped

Myth 1: Handicapped People Cannot Take Care of Themselves

Myth 2: The Mentally Ill are Dangerous and Cannot Be Trusted

Myth 3: The Mentally Retarded Do Not Know What is Going On

Myth 4: The Police Should Not Treat the Handicapped Differently from Anyone Else

Myths about the Homeless

Myth 1: Homeless People Commit More Violent Crime Than Housed People

Myth 2: Magnet Theory: Setting Up Services for Homeless People Will Cause Homeless People from All Around to Migrate to A City

Myth 3: The Chronic Theory: Homeless People are A Fixed Population Who are Usually Homeless for Long Periods of Time

Myth 4: Homeless People are Mostly Single Men

Myth 5: Homeless People Don’t Work and Get Most of Their Money from Public Assistance

Myth 6: All Homeless People are Mentally Ill Or Substance Abusers

Youth, the Elderly, the Handicapped, and the Homeless: A Few Contrasts

Interactions with the Criminal Justice System

Maturity and Life Experience

Looking Toward the Future

The Problems with Programs

Knowledge of Resources Available

Some Do Not Reach the Population They Hope to Serve

A New Approach

Police–Senior Partnerships

TRIAD Programs

Specialized Units

R.U.O.K. (Are You Okay?)

Citizens on Patrol

Senior Citizens Police Academy

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 13 Community Relations in the Context of Culture

Key Concepts

The Cultural Context of Community Relations

Being Culturally Appropriate

Theories of Assimilation and the Problems of the Police

Understanding Crime

Providing Services to the Community

Overcoming Stereotypes

Discretionary Decision Making

Space

Time

Appearance

Characteristics of Culture

Cross-Cultural Factors

African Americans

New Immigrants

Hispanic Americans

Mexican Americans

Puerto Ricans

Cuban Americans

Asian Americans

Chinese Americans

Filipino Americans

Asian Indians

Vietnamese Americans

Korean Americans

Japanese Americans

Native Americans

Pacific Islanders

Hawaiian Americans

Samoan Americans

Guamanian Americans

American Indians

Eskimos and Aleuts

White Americans

European Americans

Jewish Americans

Middle-Easterners and Northern Africans

A Perspective on Diverse Cultures

Improving Community Relations in the Context of Culture

Appreciating Culture

Understanding Language

Getting Involved in Meaningful Ways

Affecting Public Policy

Making a Firm, Full Commitment

Multicultural Advisory Committees

Specific Targets

Recruitment

Training

Public Information Bulletins for Language Minorities

Ongoing Community Participation

Cultural Citizens Police Academies

The Community Relations Service (CRS)

Advocacy

Police–Community Relations Committees

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 14 Maintaining Order: Dissent and Conflict Management

Key Concepts

Maintaining an Orderly Community

A New Philosophy for Conflict Management

Community Concerns and Changing Priorities

A Partnership

Exemplary Projects

Policing Political Dissent: Catalyst of Progress

Change versus Order

Why Seek Change?

The Right to Dissent

Keeping Dissent Peaceful

Acceptable Dissent

A Legalistic Position

A Pragmatic Position

A Classic Argument

Arenas for Dissent

Political Dissent

Social Dissent

Economic Dissent

Religious Dissent

Environmental Dissent

Strategies of Dissent and Response

The Labeling Process

Strategies of Dissent

Strategies of Response

Interaction between Strategies

Changes in Orientation and Strategy

Violent Actions

Resolution of the Conflict

The Role of Third Parties

The Role of the Media

Escalation and De-Escalation of Conflict

Escalation Factors

Increase in Loyalty and Commitment

Persistence in a Course of Action

Withdrawal of Moderate Membership

An upward Spiral of Violence

De-escalation Factors

Superior Coercive Power

Divide and Conquer

Third-party Involvement

A Redefinition of “Reasonable”

Success Factors

Outcomes

Determinants of Outcomes

Differences in Power

Perceived Permanence of Conflict

Perceived Instruments of Power

The Police

Responses of Violence

Police View of Dissent

Dissenters as Deliberate Provokers of Violence

Power and the Response of Order

The Police and “Dirty Work”

Political Surveillance

Agents Provocateurs

National Security

New Limits on Political Surveillance

Systems for Solution

Awareness

Education

Planning and Preparation

Human Dynamics Versus Power Tactics

Crisis Negotiations

Qualities of a Good Negotiator

Key Elements of Negotiation Training

Domestic Disturbances

Individuals in Crisis

Hostage Negotiations

A Broader Concept

Disputes between a Few People

Disputes Between Neighbors

Disputes Between Youths and Merchants

Landlord–Tenant Disputes

Disputes between Hundreds of People

Civil Disturbances Following the First Rodney King Verdict

Disputes over the Use of Public Space

Homeless People

Young People

Poor and Working-Class People

Conflict Intervention at the Community Level

Conflict Intervention Teams

The Defusement Process

Major Aspects of Conflict Intervention

SLO Solutions Program: A Community Conflict Resolution Partnership

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Chapter 15 Community Participation in the New Millennium

Key Concepts

The Concept of Community Participation

What Is Community Participation?

Police Models and Community Participation

New Demands

A Clear Necessity

An Old Concept

Systems and Community Values

Problems of Community Participation

Community Resistance to Community Participation

Professional Resistance to Community Participation

Two Types of Community Participation

Regulatory Participation

Civilian Review Boards

Origins

The Controversy over the Boards

Civilian Oversight Agencies

New Concept

Nature of Agencies

The Ombudsman

Community Policing

Citizen and Community Alert Programs

Supportive Participation

Volunteers in Criminal Justice Agencies

Self-Protection Outside the System

Volunteer Patrols

Private Security

Guardian Angels

Police Attitudes Toward These Groups

Family Crisis Intervention Projects

Community Responsibility Programs

Victim–Witness Advocate Programs

Police–Community Relations in the New Millennium

Community Features and Social Controls

SFD Community Outreach Councils

Public Safety Project—Burlington, Vermont

The Impact of World and National Events on Communities

Globalization of Crime and Criminal Groups

Globalization of Protest Issues and Protest Groups

The War on Terror and Impacts of Homeland Security

Warring Against Foreign Terrorists

Al-Quaida

Iraq

Imprisoning “Foreign Combatants”

Homeland Security

Increased Security Efforts

Domestic Eavesdropping

Improving Police–Community Relations in the New Millennium

Understanding What the Police Do for Their Communities

Crime Prevention and Control

Emergency Responders to Crisis Situations

Community Problem Solvers

Choosing Community-Specific Strategies

No One Solution

Problem-Solving Policing and Community Policing

Local Strategies for Local Problems

Conclusions

Student Checklist

Topics for Discussion

Bibliography

Recommended Police-Related Web Sites

Civil/Constitutional Rights Sites

Community Policing Sites

Federal Law Enforcement Sites

Legal Organizations Sites

Legal Reference Sites

Police Employment Sites

Police Ethics Sites

Police Information Sites

Police Professional Organizations Sites

Police Publications Sites

Police Research Sites

Police Support Sites

Police Training Sites

Index

Dr. Ron Hunter holds the rank of Professor and founded the Criminal Justice and Criminology program at Georgia Gwinnett College. He received his Ph.D. in Criminology from Florida State University. He previously taught at Western Carolina University, the University of West Georgia, Jacksonville State University, and the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. He has held administrative positions of program coordinator, department head, and associate dean. Prior to entering academia Dr. Hunter was a sergeant with the Tallahassee (Florida) Police Department. Assignments included supervising the joint Tallahassee-Leon County Robbery Task Force, the Managing Criminal Information Unit, the Career Criminal Unit, the Records Section and a squad of Officers within Uniformed Patrol. He also served seven years as a part-time Municipal Judge in Cave Spring, Georgia. Dr. Hunter is a Past President of the Southern Criminal Justice Association and of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. His research interests are primarily in the areas of crime prevention and law enforcement. He has published textbooks on research methods, criminological theories, robbery prevention, and police-community relations. He has published articles and presented numerous papers on a myriad of criminal justice issues.

Dr. Thomas “Tom” Barker, Professor Emeritus, School of Justice Studies from Eastern Kentucky University, has been busy since his “retirement” from teaching and moving to San Antonio, Texas in December 2013 to be close to his granddaughter. He has revised two books on Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs and North American Criminal Gangs and published another book on Biker Gangs. He has completed a book on Police Sexual Misconduct currently being reviewed for publication, and is researching and writing a book, Outlaw Bikers Legacy of Violence: Altamont to Waco, Texas. He has published an article on the Massacre at Waco―police biker shootout and the overreaction by the police. He has presented three papers at professional meetings on police misconduct and outlaw bikers and filmed a narrative for the Las Vegas Mob Museum on their Outlaw Biker display.

Melchor C. de Guzman is a professor of Criminal Justice and Criminology at Georgia Gwinnett College. He earned his doctorate degree in criminal justice from the University of Cincinnati with concentration on policing in 2001. He has extensive experiences working in the criminal justice field in the U.S. and the Philippines. Dr. de Guzman was a police instructor for middle managers and senior police officials as a lecturer with the Philippine Public Safety College. He had also formulated policies for the Philippine National Police as the Secretary of the Senate Committee on National Defense and Security in the Philippines. He has worked with the evaluation of community policing in South Bend, Indiana and the shoplifting phenomenon in Cheektowaga, NY with the Cheektowaga Police Department. Dr. de Guzman’s research includes the examination of citizen participation in the control of the police. He also investigates organizational and environmental factors that influence police behavior. He has published two edited books examining international policing practices. He has also published several articles in policing journals. His most recent research includes the utilization of websites by police departments in the delivery of police services, the implementation of policing models, and the role of the police in homeland security. Dr. de Guzman is currently involved in a National Science Foundation (NSF) grant investigating insider threats in financial institutions. He is also the current managing editor of Police Practice and Research: An International Journal and the book editor for the International Police Executive Symposium.